In a variety of applications, the detection and identification of certain chemical or molecular species is desired. For example, it may be desirable to identify small molecule analytes, such as amino acids and metallic ions, as well as relatively large proteins, such as DNA and RNA. In particular, the detection of biomarkers in biological samples is important for disease detection, disease analysis, and disease pathway investigation. Further, the detection of contaminants in environmental samples, such as in water, is important for homeland security, public safety, and environmental welfare.
The drawings illustrate only example embodiments and are therefore not to be considered limiting of the scope described herein, as other equally effective embodiments are within the scope and spirit of this disclosure. The elements and features shown in the drawings are not necessarily drawn to scale, emphasis instead being placed upon clearly illustrating the principles of the embodiments. Additionally, certain dimensions may be exaggerated to help visually convey certain principles. In the drawings, similar reference numerals between figures designate like or corresponding, but not necessarily the same, elements.